The Rise of China and the Future of the West
-Can the Liberal System Survive?
Summary:
China's rise will inevitably bring the United States' unipolar moment to an
end. But that does not necessarily mean a violent power struggle or the
overthrow of the Western system. The U.S.-led international order can remain
dominant even while integrating a more powerful China -- but only if Washington
sets about strengthening that liberal order now.
G. JOHN IKENBERRY is Albert G. Milbank Professor of Politics and
International Affairs at Princeton University and the author of After Victory:
Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order After Major
Wars.
The
rise of China will undoubtedly be one of the great dramas of the twenty-first
century. China's extraordinary economic growth and active diplomacy are already
transforming East Asia, and future decades will see even greater increases in
Chinese power and influence. But exactly how this drama will play out is an
open question. Will China overthrow the existing order or become a part of it?
And what, if anything, can the United States do to maintain its position as
China rises?
Some observers believe that the American era is coming to an end,
as the Western-oriented world order is replaced by one increasingly dominated
by the East. The historian Niall Ferguson has written that the bloody twentieth
century witnessed "the descent of the West" and "a reorientation
of the world" toward the East. Realists go on to note that as China gets
more powerful and the United States' position erodes, two things are likely to
happen: China will try to use its growing influence to reshape the rules and
institutions of the international system to better serve its interests, and
other states in the system -- especially the declining hegemon --will start to
see China as a growing security threat. The result of these developments, they
predict, will be tension, distrust, and conflict, the typical features of a
power transition. In this view, the drama of China's rise will feature an
increasingly powerful China and a declining United States locked in an epic
battle over the rules and leadership of the international system. And as the
world's largest country emerges not from within but outside the established
post-World War II international order, it is a drama that will end with the
grand ascendance of China and the onset of an Asian-centered world order.
That course, however, is not inevitable. The rise of China does
not have to trigger a wrenching hegemonic transition. The U.S.-Chinese power
transition can be very different from those of the past because China faces an
international order that is fundamentally different from those that past rising
states confronted. China does not just face the United States; it faces a
Western-centered system that is open, integrated, and rule-based, with wide and
deep political foundations. The nuclear revolution, meanwhile, has made war
among great powers unlikely -- eliminating the major tool that rising powers
have used to overturn international systems defended by declining hegemonic
states. Today's Western order, in short, is hard to overturn and easy to join.
This
unusually durable and expansive order is itself the product of farsighted U.S.
leadership. After World War II, the United States did not simply establish
itself as the leading world power. It led in the creation of universal
institutions that not only invited global membership but also brought
democracies and market societies closer together. It built an order that
facilitated the participation and integration of both established great powers
and newly independent states. (It is often forgotten that this postwar order
was designed in large part to reintegrate the defeated Axis states and the
beleaguered Allied states into a unified international system.) Today, China
can gain full access to and thrive within this system. And if it does, China will
rise, but the Western order --if managed properly -- will live on.
As it faces an
ascendant China, the United States should remember that its leadership of the
Western order allows it to shape the environment in which China will make
critical strategic choices. If it wants to preserve this leadership, Washington must work to strengthen the rules and institutions that
underpin that order -- making it even easier to join and harder to overturn.
U.S. grand strategy should be built around the motto "The road to the East
runs through the West." It must sink the roots of this order as deeply as
possible, giving China greater incentives for integration than for opposition
and increasing the chances that the system will survive even after U.S.
relative power has declined.
The United States' "unipolar moment" will inevitably
end. If the defining struggle of the twenty-first century is between China and
the United States, China will have the advantage. If the defining struggle is
between China and a revived Western system, the West will triumph.
TRANSITIONAL
ANXIETIES
China
is well on its way to becoming a formidable global power. The size of its
economy has quadrupled since the launch of market reforms in the late 1970s
and, by some estimates, will double again over the next decade. It has become
one of the world's major manufacturing centers and consumes roughly a third of
the global supply of iron, steel, and coal. It has accumulated massive foreign
reserves, worth more than $1 trillion at the end of 2006. China's military
spending has increased at an inflation-adjusted rate of over 18 percent a year,
and its diplomacy has extended its reach not just in Asia but also in Africa,
Latin America, and the Middle East. Indeed, whereas the Soviet Union rivaled
the United States as a military competitor only, China is emerging as both a
military and an economic rival -- heralding a profound shift in the
distribution of global power.
Power transitions are a recurring problem in international
relations. As scholars such as Paul Kennedy and Robert Gilpin have described
it, world politics has been marked by a succession of powerful states rising up
to organize the international system. A powerful state can create and enforce
the rules and institutions of a stable global order in which to pursue its
interests and security. But nothing lasts forever: long-term changes in the
distribution of power give rise to new challenger states, who set off a
struggle over the terms of that international order. Rising states want to
translate their newly acquired power into greater authority in the global
system --to reshape the rules and institutions in accordance with their own
interests. Declining states, in turn, fear their loss of control and worry
about the security implications of their weakened position.
These moments are fraught with danger. When a state occupies a
commanding position in the international system, neither it nor weaker states
have an incentive to change the existing order. But when the power of a
challenger state grows and the power of the leading state weakens, a strategic
rivalry ensues, and conflict -- perhaps leading to war -becomes likely. The
danger of power transitions is captured most dramatically in the case of
late-nineteenth-century Germany. In 1870, the United Kingdom had a three-to-one
advantage in economic power over Germany and a significant military advantage
as well; by 1903, Germany had pulled ahead in terms of both economic and
military power. As Germany unified and grew, so, too, did its dissatisfactions
and demands, and as it grew more powerful, it increasingly appeared as a threat
to other great powers in Europe, and security competition began. In the
strategic realignments that followed, France, Russia, and the United Kingdom,
formerly enemies, banded together to confront an emerging Germany. The result
was a European war. Many observers see this dynamic emerging in U.S.-Chinese
relations. "If China continues its impressive economic growth over the
next few decades," the realist scholar John Mearsheimer has written,
"the United States and China are likely to engage in an intense security
competition with considerable potential for war."
But
not all power transitions generate war or overturn the old order. In the early
decades of the twentieth century, the United Kingdom ceded authority to the
United States without great conflict or even a rupture in relations. From the
late 1940s to the early 1990s, Japan's economy grew from the equivalent of five
percent of U.S. GDP to the equivalent of over 60 percent of U.S. GDP, and yet
Japan never challenged the existing international order.
Clearly,
there are different types of power transitions. Some states have seen their
economic and geopolitical power grow dramatically and have still accommodated
themselves to the existing order. Others have risen up and sought to change it.
Some power transitions have led to the breakdown of the old order and the establishment
of a new international hierarchy. Others have brought about only limited
adjustments in the regional and global system.
A variety of factors determine the way in which power transitions
unfold. The nature of the rising state's regime and the degree of its
dissatisfaction with the old order are critical: at the end of the nineteenth
century, the United States, a liberal country an ocean away from Europe, was
better able to embrace the British-centered international order than Germany
was. But even more decisive is the character of the international order itself
-- for it is the nature of the international order that shapes a rising state's
choice between challenging that order and integrating into it.
OPEN
ORDER
The postwar Western order is historically unique. Any international order
dominated by a powerful state is based on a mix of coercion and consent, but
the U.S.-led order is distinctive in that it has been more liberal than
imperial -- and so unusually accessible, legitimate, and durable. Its rules and
institutions are rooted in, and thus reinforced by, the evolving global forces
of democracy and capitalism. It is expansive, with a wide and widening array of
participants and stakeholders. It is capable of generating tremendous economic
growth and power while also signaling restraint --all of which make it hard to
overturn and easy to join.
It was the explicit intention of the Western order's architects in
the 1940s to make that order integrative and expansive. Before the Cold War
split the world into competing camps, Franklin Roosevelt sought to create a
one-world system managed by cooperative great powers that would rebuild
war-ravaged Europe, integrate the defeated states, and establish mechanisms for
security cooperation and expansive economic growth. In fact, it was Roosevelt
who urged -over the opposition of Winston Churchill -- that China be included
as a permanent member of the UN Security Council. The then Australian
ambassador to the United States wrote in his diary after his first meeting with
Roosevelt during the war, "He said that he had numerous discussions with
Winston about China and that he felt that Winston was 40 years behind the times
on China and he continually referred to the Chinese as 'Chinks' and 'Chinamen'
and he felt that this was very dangerous. He wanted to keep China as a friend
because in 40 or 50 years' time China might easily become a very powerful
military nation."
Over the next half century, the United States used the system of
rules and institutions it had built to good effect. West Germany was bound to
its democratic Western European neighbors through the European Coal and Steel
Community (and, later, the European Community) and to the United States through
the Atlantic security pact; Japan was bound to the United States through an
alliance partnership and expanding economic ties. The Bretton Woods meeting in
1944 laid down the monetary and trade rules that facilitated the opening and
subsequent flourishing of the world economy -an astonishing achievement given
the ravages of war and the competing interests of the great powers. Additional
agreements between the United States, Western Europe, and Japan solidified the
open and multilateral character of the postwar world economy. After the onset
of the Cold War, the Marshall Plan in Europe and the 1951 security pact between
the United States and Japan further integrated the defeated Axis powers into
the Western order.
In
the final days of the Cold War, this system once again proved remarkably
successful. As the Soviet Union declined, the Western order offered a set of
rules and institutions that provided Soviet leaders with both reassurances and
points of access --effectively encouraging them to become a part of the system.
Moreover, the shared leadership of the order ensured accommodation of the
Soviet Union. As the Reagan administration pursued a hard-line policy toward
Moscow, the Europeans pursued détente and engagement. For every hard-line
"push," there was a moderating "pull," allowing Mikhail
Gorbachev to pursue high-risk reforms. On the eve of German unification, the
fact that a united Germany would be embedded in European and Atlantic
institutions --rather than becoming an independent great power --helped
reassure Gorbachev that neither German nor Western intentions were hostile.
After the Cold War, the Western order once again managed the integration of a
new wave of countries, this time from the formerly communist world. Three
particular features of the Western order have been critical to this success and
longevity.
First, unlike the imperial systems of the past, the Western order
is built around rules and norms of nondiscrimination and market openness,
creating conditions for rising states to advance their expanding economic and
political goals within it. Across history, international orders have varied
widely in terms of whether the material benefits that are generated accrue
disproportionately to the leading state or are widely shared. In the Western
system, the barriers to economic participation are low, and the potential
benefits are high. China has already discovered the massive economic returns
that are possible by operating within this open-market system.
Second is the coalition-based character of its leadership. Past
orders have tended to be dominated by one state. The stakeholders of the
current Western order include a coalition of powers arrayed around the United
States --an important distinction. These leading states, most of them advanced
liberal democracies, do not always agree, but they are engaged in a continuous
process of give-and-take over economics, politics, and security. Power
transitions are typically seen as being played out between two countries, a
rising state and a declining hegemon, and the order falls as soon as the power
balance shifts. But in the current order, the larger aggregation of democratic
capitalist states -- and the resulting accumulation of geopolitical power
--shifts the balance in the order's favor.
Third, the postwar Western order has an unusually dense, encompassing,
and broadly endorsed system of rules and institutions. Whatever its
shortcomings, it is more open and rule-based than any previous order. State
sovereignty and the rule of law are not just norms enshrined in the United
Nations Charter. They are part of the deep operating logic of the order. To be
sure, these norms are evolving, and the United States itself has historically
been ambivalent about binding itself to international law and institutions --
and at no time more so than today. But the overall system is dense with
multilateral rules and institutions -- global and regional, economic,
political, and security-related. These represent one of the great breakthroughs
of the postwar era. They have laid the basis for unprecedented levels of
cooperation and shared authority over the global system.
The
incentives these features create for China to integrate into the liberal
international order are reinforced by the changed nature of the international
economic environment -- especially the new interdependence driven by
technology. The most farsighted Chinese leaders understand that globalization
has changed the game and that China accordingly needs strong, prosperous
partners around the world. From the United States' perspective, a healthy
Chinese economy is vital to the United States and the rest of the world.
Technology and the global economic revolution have created a logic of economic
relations that is different from the past --making the political and
institutional logic of the current order all the more powerful.
ACCOMMODATING
THE RISE
The most important benefit of these features today is that they
give the Western order a remarkable capacity to accommodate rising powers. New
entrants into the system have ways of gaining status and authority and opportunities
to play a role in governing the order. The fact that the United States, China,
and other great powers have nuclear weapons also limits the ability of a rising
power to overturn the existing order. In the age of nuclear deterrence,
great-power war is, thankfully, no longer a mechanism of historical change.
War-driven change has been abolished as a historical process.
The
Western order's strong framework of rules and institutions is already starting
to facilitate Chinese integration. At first, China embraced certain rules and
institutions for defensive purposes: protecting its sovereignty and economic
interests while seeking to reassure other states of its peaceful intentions by
getting involved in regional and global groupings. But as the scholar Marc
Lanteigne argues, "What separates China from other states, and indeed
previous global powers, is that not only is it 'growing up' within a milieu of
international institutions far more developed than ever before, but more
importantly, it is doing so while making active use of these institutions to
promote the country's development of global power status." China, in
short, is increasingly working within, rather than outside of, the Western
order.
China not only needs continued access to the global capitalist
system; it also wants the protections that the system's rules and institutions
provide. The WTO's multilateral trade principles and dispute-settlement
mechanisms, for example, offer China tools to defend against the threats of
discrimination and protectionism that rising economic powers often confront.
The evolution of China's policy suggests that Chinese leaders recognize these
advantages: as Beijing's growing commitment to economic liberalization has
increased the foreign investment and trade China has enjoyed, so has Beijing
increasingly embraced global trade rules. It is possible that as China comes to
champion the WTO, the support of the more mature Western economies for the WTO
will wane. But it is more likely that both the rising and the declining
countries will find value in the quasi-legal mechanisms that allow conflicts to
be settled or at least diffused.
The existing international economic
institutions also offer opportunities for new powers to rise up through their
hierarchies. In the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, governance
is based on economic shares, which growing countries can translate into greater
institutional voice. To be sure, the process of adjustment has been slow. The
United States and Europe still dominate the IMF. Washington has a 17 percent
voting share (down from 30 percent) --a controlling amount, because 85 percent
approval is needed for action --and the European Union has a major say in the
appointment of ten of the 24 members of the board. But there are growing
pressures, notably the need for resources and the need to maintain relevance,
that will likely persuade the Western states to admit China into the inner
circle of these economic governance institutions. The IMF's existing
shareholders, for example, see a bigger role for rising developing countries as
necessary to renew the institution and get it through its current crisis of
mission. At the IMF's meeting in Singapore in September 2006, they agreed on
reforms that will give China, Mexico, South Korea, and Turkey a greater voice.
As China sheds its status as a developing country (and therefore
as a client of these institutions), it will increasingly be able to act as a
patron and stakeholder instead. Leadership in these organizations is not simply
a reflection of economic size (the United States has retained its voting share
in the IMF even as its economic weight has declined); nonetheless, incremental
advancement within them will create important opportunities for China.
POWER
SHIFT AND PEACEFUL CHANGE
Seen
in this light, the rise of China need not lead to a volcanic struggle with the
United States over global rules and leadership. The Western order has the
potential to turn the coming power shift into a peaceful change on terms
favorable to the United States. But that will only happen if the United States
sets about strengthening the existing order. Today, with Washington preoccupied
with terrorism and war in the Middle East, rebuilding Western rules and
institutions might to some seem to be of only marginal relevance. Many Bush
administration officials have been outright hostile to the multilateral,
rule-based system that the United States has shaped and led. Such hostility is
foolish and dangerous. China will become powerful: it is already on the rise,
and the United States' most powerful strategic weapon is the ability to decide
what sort of international order will be in place to receive it.
The
United States must reinvest in the Western order, reinforcing the features of
that order that encourage engagement, integration, and restraint. The more this
order binds together capitalist democratic states in deeply rooted
institutions; the more open, consensual, and rule-based it is; and the more
widely spread its benefits, the more likely it will be that rising powers can
and will secure their interests through integration and accommodation rather
than through war. And if the Western system offers rules and institutions that
benefit the full range of states -- rising and falling, weak and strong,
emerging and mature --its dominance as an international order is all but
certain.
The first thing the United States must do is reestablish itself as
the foremost supporter of the global system of governance that underpins the
Western order. Doing so will first of all facilitate the kind of collective
problem solving that makes all countries better off. At the same time, when
other countries see the United States using its power to strengthen existing
rules and institutions, that power is rendered more legitimate --and U.S.
authority is strengthened. Countries within the West become more inclined to
work with, rather than resist, U.S. power, which reinforces the centrality and
dominance of the West itself.
Renewing Western rules and institutions will require, among other
things, updating the old bargains that underpinned key postwar security pacts.
The strategic understanding behind both NATO and Washington's East Asian
alliances is that the United States will work with its allies to provide
security and bring them in on decisions over the use of force, and U.S. allies,
in return, will operate within the U.S.-led Western order. Security cooperation
in the West remains extensive today, but with the main security threats less
obvious than they were during the Cold War, the purposes and responsibilities
of these alliances are under dispute. Accordingly, the United States needs to
reaffirm the political value of these alliances --recognizing that they are
part of a wider Western institutional architecture that allows states to do
business with one another.
The United States should also renew its support for
wide-ranging multilateral institutions. On the economic front, this would
include building on the agreements and architecture of the WTO, including
pursuing efforts to conclude the current Doha Round of trade talks, which seeks
to extend market opportunities and trade liberalization to developing
countries. The WTO is at a critical stage. The basic standard of
nondiscrimination is at risk thanks to the proliferation of bilateral and
regional trade agreements. Meanwhile, there are growing
doubts over whether the WTO can in fact carry out trade liberalization,
particularly in agriculture, that benefits developing countries. These issues
may seem narrow, but the fundamental character of the liberal international
order -- its commitment to universal rules of openness that spread gains widely
-- is at stake. Similar doubts haunt a host of other multilateral agreements
--on global warming and nuclear nonproliferation, among others -- and they thus
also demand renewed U.S. leadership.
The
strategy here is not simply to ensure that the Western order is open and
rule-based. It is also to make sure that the order does not fragment into an
array of bilateral and "minilateral" arrangements, causing the United
States to find itself tied to only a few key states in various regions. Under
such a scenario, China would have an opportunity to build its own set of
bilateral and "minilateral" pacts. As a result, the world would be
broken into competing U.S. and Chinese spheres. The more security and economic
relations are multilateral and all-encompassing, the more the global system
retains its coherence.
In
addition to maintaining the openness and durability of the order, the United
States must redouble its efforts to integrate rising developing countries into
key global institutions. Bringing emerging countries into the governance of the
international order will give it new life. The United States and Europe must
find room at the table not only for China but also for countries such as Brazil,
India, and South Africa. A Goldman Sachs report on the so-called BRICs (Brazil,
Russia, India, and China) noted that by 2050 these countries' economies could
together be larger than those of the original G-6 countries (Germany, France,
Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States) combined. Each
international institution presents its own challenges. The UN Security Council
is perhaps the hardest to deal with, but its reform would also bring the
greatest returns. Less formal bodies --the so-called G-20 and various other
intergovernmental networks --can provide alternative avenues for voice and
representation.
THE
TRIUMPH OF THE LIBERAL ORDER
The
key thing for U.S. leaders to remember is that it may be possible for China to
overtake the United States alone, but it is much less likely that China will
ever manage to overtake the Western order. In terms of economic weight, for
example, China will surpass the United States as the largest state in the
global system sometime around 2020. (Because of its population, China needs a
level of productivity only one-fifth that of the United States to become the
world's biggest economy.) But when the economic capacity of the Western system
as a whole is considered, China's economic advances look much less significant;
the Chinese economy will be much smaller than the combined economies of the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development far into the future. This
is even truer of military might: China cannot hope to come anywhere close to
total OECD military expenditures anytime soon. The capitalist democratic world
is a powerful constituency for the preservation --and, indeed, extension --of
the existing international order. If China intends to rise up and challenge the
existing order, it has a much more daunting task than simply confronting the
United States.
The
"unipolar moment" will eventually pass. U.S. dominance will
eventually end. U.S. grand strategy, accordingly, should be driven by one key
question: What kind of international order would the United States like to see
in place when it is less powerful?
This might be called the neo-Rawlsian question of the current era.
The political philosopher John Rawls argued that political institutions should
be conceived behind a "veil of ignorance" -- that is, the architects
should design institutions as if they do not know precisely where they will be
within a socioeconomic system. The result would be a system that safeguards a
person's interests regardless of whether he is rich or poor, weak or strong. The
United States needs to take that approach to its leadership of the
international order today. It must put in place institutions and fortify rules
that will safeguard its interests regardless of where exactly in the hierarchy
it is or how exactly power is distributed in 10, 50, or 100 years.
Fortunately,
such an order is in place already. The task now is to make it so expansive and
so institutionalized that China has no choice but to become a full-fledged
member of it. The United States cannot thwart China's rise, but it can help
ensure that China's power is exercised within the rules and institutions that
the United States and its partners have crafted over the last century, rules
and institutions that can protect the interests of all states in the more
crowded world of the future. The United States' global position may be
weakening, but the international system the United States leads can remain the
dominant order of the twenty-first century.
中国崛起与西方世界的未来:
自由体系能否继续维持?
自由体系能否继续维持?
本文发表于美国《外交事务》杂志2008年第1期,作者是普林斯顿大学政治与国际关系学阿尔贝·G.米尔班克讲席教授约翰·伊肯伯里。文章探讨了中国的崛起以及美国维持目前全球霸主地位的可能性。作者认为,美国不能阻止中国的崛起,但是可以促使中国在这个由美国及其合作者在过去一个世纪里建立起来的框架下行事,从而确保在未来日益拥挤的世界里,所有国家的利益都能够得到保护。
毋庸置疑,中国的崛起是21世纪的重大事件之一。中国经济的飞速增长与其积极的外交策略已经改变了东亚的格局。未来几十年中国的实力与影响力还将继续增强。但中国崛起这一戏剧性的事件将如何收场,目前尚难定论:中国是会打破现有的国际秩序,还是会融入其中成为当下秩序的一部分?而当中国崛起时,美国又能够做些什么以维持它现有的地位?
一些观察家认为,源于西方国家的世界秩序正在被以东方世界为主导的秩序逐步取代,这意味着美国时代行将结束。历史学家尼尔·弗格森曾撰文指出,血腥的20世纪目睹了“西方的没落”和朝向东方的“世界重新定向”。现实主义者进一步注意到,随着中国力量的日益强大,以及美国地位的逐渐削弱,有两件事很可能会发生:其一,中国将充分利用其日益增长的影响力,重塑国际体系的规则制度,以更好地满足其利益需要;其二,这个体系中的其他国家———尤其是那些正在走下坡路的霸主———将把中国看作一个日益严峻的威胁。现实主义者预测,事态如此发展下去,将出现紧张、不信任和冲突这类权力转移过程中的典型现象。照这种观点,中国的崛起,会导致日益强大的中国与逐渐衰弱的美国为国际体系规则和领导地位产生声势浩大的争斗。一旦世界上最强大的国家产生于二战后的国际秩序之外,中国的强势崛起和以亚洲为中心的世界秩序将会形成。
然而,这个结果并非不可避免。中国的崛起可能不会引发残酷的霸权转换。中国所面临的国际秩序与过去崛起的那些国家完全不同,因此中美实力的转换也会与过去那些历史案例有所区别。中国所面对的不仅仅是美国,而是一个以西方国家为核心的完整体系———开放、规则完善、联合紧密并拥有深远的政治基础。同时,核威胁的存在也使得大国之间发生战争的可能性变得极小,而在过去,战争是新兴势力颠覆旧国际体系的最主要手段。简而言之,如今的西方秩序很难被颠覆,但却极易融入。
这种具有持久生命力且易于扩张的秩序本身得益于美国富有前瞻性的领导。二战以后,美国并不只是简单地确立了自己的全球领导地位,还牵头建立了一套全球国家参与其中的国际通用体系,将民主政治与市场经济紧密地结合在一起。美国建立的这套战后秩序对已有大国和新兴国家的参与融合都十分有利(事实上,战后秩序的建立在很大程度上是为了重新将同盟国和战败的轴心国纳入同一个国际体系)。如今,中国完全能够进入这个体系并继续繁荣发展。一旦成功,中国将会崛起,而西方秩序———只要管理得当———也会继续维持下去。
面对生机勃勃的中国,美国可以利用自身在西方秩序中的领导地位以控制中国在作出重要战略决策时所面对的外部环境。如果想要保持其领导地位,美国政府必须加强构成西方秩序基础的那些规则和制度,从而使得这个体系易于加入,而难以颠覆。美国的大战略应当遵循这条箴言:“通向东方的道路必途经西方。”必须尽可能地巩固西方秩序的根基,以促使中国选择与其融为一体而不是与之为敌,以增加美国衰落后现有国际体系的生存机会。
属于美国的“单极时代”终将过去。若21世纪的竞争是中美之争,中国将占据优势。如若竞争发生在中国和完善的西方秩序体系之间,那么后者将获得胜利。
转型的焦虑
中国正在成长为一流的世界大国。自20世纪70年代后期改革开放以来,这个国家的经济规模已经增长了4倍,而在未来10年内也许还能再翻一番。中国已经成为世界主要制造中心之一,其消耗的钢铁和煤炭约占全球总产量的1/3,其外汇储备在2006年底已经超过了1万亿美元。中国每年的国防开支占国内生产总值的比例已超过了18%,外交活动的范围也早已超出亚洲,延伸至非洲、拉美和中东。显然,与苏联单纯与美国进行军事竞赛不同,中国在军事和经济两方面同时发展———这对世界大国格局造成了深远的影响。
权力转移在国际关系中一再发生。保罗·肯尼迪和罗伯特·吉尔平等学者对这一过程都进行过研究。正如他们所描述的那样,世界政治表现为一连串国家的强势崛起,并建立自己的国际体系。强国会创造一个全球秩序并加以巩固以保护自身的利益和安全。但这种状态不可能永远持续下去:在权力分配的长期变化中会涌现新兴国家对已有的国际秩序进行挑战。这些后起之秀力图凭借它们新获的实力,在国际体系中获得更高的地位———按照自己的利益,重新构造国际规则。相应地,那些开始衰落的强国会担心话语权的旁落,以及自身地位的岌岌可危。
这个时候危机重重。当一个国家在国际体系中拥有了话语权时,它和体系中那些稍弱的国家都不会愿意改变现有的秩序。但随着挑战者实力变强而领导者变弱,战略上的对抗便随之出现,这就很可能导致摩擦冲突乃至战争。19世纪末的德国就很好地说明了权力转移过程中的危险。在1870年,英国的经济实力三倍于德国,军事力量同样远超德国;而到了1903年时,德国在经济和军事实力上都超过了对手。随着德国的统一和强盛,其对现状的不满和野心也在不断增长。而德国日益增长的实力对欧洲其他强国也构成了威胁,国家安全竞争再次拉开帷幕。随之而来的是战略联盟的重新洗牌:法国、俄国和英国这几个之前的对手又联合起来以对抗德国,最终爆发了欧洲战争。许多观察家已经注意到了中美关系中戏剧性的转变。现实主义学者约翰·米尔斯海默曾预测:“接下来几十年,如果中国继续保持高速经济增长,美国和中国很可能卷入紧张的安全竞赛,并极有可能导致战争。”
但是并不是所有的权力转移都会导致战争和旧秩序的颠覆。在20世纪初期,英国就曾经将主导地位拱手让于美国,没有什么大的冲突,甚至两者关系也未因此破裂。在40年代晚期日本的GDP只有美国的5%,而到90年代早期已经增长到美国的60%,但日本却从未挑战过现有的国际秩序。
权力转移可以有很多不同的方式。一些国家在经济和地缘政治实力崛起后仍维持与现行国际秩序接轨;一些国家则在崛起之后开始寻求秩序变革。一些权力转移导致旧秩序的倒塌和新国际秩序的建立;一些则只是对区域及全球体系做出有限的修正。
权力转移的具体方式受到诸多因素的影响。新兴政权的性质与其对旧秩序的不满程度是关键因素:19世纪末,美国作为自由主义国家,反而能够比德国更好地接受英国领导的国际秩序。但是,更重要的是国际秩序本身———正是国际秩序的性质决定了一个新兴国家是选择挑战秩序还是融入其中。
开放的秩序
战后建立的西方秩序在历史上绝无仅有。任何被单个强权国主宰的国际秩序不仅拥有自愿者,也有被迫加入的成员。只有当前美国主导的秩序不同:它更民主而不是独裁,从而使得这个秩序具有不同以往的包容性、合法性和持久性。这个秩序的规则制度由全球不断革新的民主与资本主义力量所创建并巩固。它拥有广大的参与者和利益相关者,从而富于拓展性。它在产生巨大的经济效益和实力增长的同时,又对成员保持一定的约束。这就使得这个秩序很难被颠覆,但可以轻松融入。
19世纪40年代的西方秩序建立者从一开始就试图让这个秩序富于融入性和拓展性。冷战之前,罗斯福总统就开始寻求建立一个由大国合作管理的全球体系,从而重建战后的欧洲,联合战败国,建立安全合作机制并加快经济增长。事实上,正是罗斯福不顾丘吉尔的反对促使中国成为联合国安理会常任理事国。时任澳大利亚驻美大使首次与罗斯福见面后在日记中写道:“他提到曾与温斯顿·丘吉尔多次讨论过中国问题,他觉得温斯顿对中国的印象落后了40年,温斯顿不停提到‘中国佬’等词,他觉得这样很危险,应该把中国作为朋友对待,因为在40或50年内中国很可能会变成军事强国。”
在接下来的半个世纪,美国利用这个规则体系取得了良好的效果。西德被欧洲煤钢联营(接着是欧洲共同体)与其民主的西欧邻国绑在了一起,又被大西洋安全条约与美国绑定;日本则因为美日同盟及其之间不断增长的经济联系与美国走到了一起。1944年的布雷顿森林会议制定了货币与贸易规则,促成了建立在战后废墟和大国竞争上的惊人奇迹———世界经济的开放与随之而来的繁荣昌盛。美国、西欧和日本之间的补充协议则确立了战后世界经济的开放性和多边性。冷战开始之后的“马歇尔计划”和1951年美日安全条约将战败的轴心国也纳入了西方秩序当中。
在冷战的最后时刻,这个美国建立的体系再次向世人证明了其成功之处。随着苏联的衰弱,西方秩序向苏联领导人提供了一系列规则制度便于其放心地接触,并诱惑其共享领导权,这极大地推动了苏联加入西方的体系。当里根政府对莫斯科执行强硬政策时,欧洲正寻求相对缓和的政策。任何强硬的“逼推”政策都辅以温和的“牵引”举措,威逼利诱之下,戈尔巴乔夫不顾危险毅然变革。德国统一之后,并没有选择成为孤立的强国,而是加入欧洲组织和大西洋组织。这个事实让戈尔巴乔夫终于确定德国与西方都没有敌意。冷战之后,随着新一波来自之前社会主义阵营国家的加入,西方秩序再次占据主导地位。西方秩序的三个特点对此功不可没。
第一,与过去的独裁体系有所不同,它是建立在非歧视以及市场开放的基础上。这就为新兴国家在该秩序内发展经济和政治实力创造了条件。究其历史,国际秩序大致可分为两类:一类是相当大一部分物质财富被领导国占据,另一类则是物质财富在秩序内被广泛地共享。在西方秩序中,加入的经济门槛很低,但可获得的利益极大。中国就已经发现,在这个开放的市场中可能存在着巨大的经济回报。
第二,当前的国际秩序实行联合协商性质的领导。过去的体系都倾向于单个国家说一不二,而现有的体系则大相径庭,它是以西方各国为主导的协商体系。大部分领导国是发达的自由民主国家,在经济、政治和国防各方面并不总能达成一致,但可以通过不断协商妥协作出决定。当新兴国和旧霸权国之间发生权力转移时,权力平衡的变化会打破原有秩序体系。但是在西方秩序里,由于地缘政治力量汇集了众多民主资本主义国家,权力再平衡在秩序内部即可完成。
第三,西方秩序是一个由规则制度构成的体系,这些规则制度种类众多、完善且广受认可。与之前任何一个秩序相比,它都更为开放且遵循制度。国家主权和法治不只是联合国宪章中的规范条款,也是构成西方秩序的深层逻辑基础。无疑,这些法规也在不断完善。与此同时,美国却更加纠结于是否需要将自己绑入国际规则中。西方秩序体系拥有大量的多边法规———覆盖全球的、地区的、经济的、政治的、国家安全的。所有这些象征着战后时代的巨大突破,为前所未有的全球合作和权力共享打下基础。
所有这些特点都吸引着中国加入这个民主的国际秩序,国际经济环境的变化———特别是技术驱动下的相互依赖———更加强了这种吸引力。富有远见的中国领导人知道全球化改变了游戏规则,而中国需要更强大繁荣的合作伙伴。而在美国看来,中国经济保持健康发展对美国和其他国家至关重要。技术创新与全球经济变革使得世界经济发展不同以往,从而导致现有的秩序体系变得牢固。
适应崛起
这些特点最重要的好处在于,它使得西方秩序对新崛起的国家具有极好的适应性。新加入秩序者能够获得地位和权威,并有机会参与秩序的管理。美国、中国和其他核武器拥有国也会限制新兴国颠覆现有的秩序。在核威慑时代,大国战争已被历史所淘汰,而不再是改变历史的方式。
西方秩序强大的制度框架已经开始帮助中国融入其中。一开始,中国出于防御目的,接受了一些规则制度以保护主权和经济利益。同时它又加入一些地区性和全球性组织,以确定其他国家对其的善意。但就如学者马克·兰滕(Marc Lanteigne)所描述的那样:“中国与之前大国的不同之处在于,它不仅仅在这样一个前所未有的国际体系下高速增长,更重要的是在其增长的同时还主动利用这些制度推进其在国际大国中地位的上升。”简而言之,中国正逐渐学会在西方秩序内而不是秩序外谋求发展。
中国已是联合国安理会常任理事国,这
可以说是得益于罗斯福构建多极领导的国际体系的决心。这给予中国与其他常任理事国同等的、“强国例外论”的权力和优势。目前的全球贸易体系对中国也日益重要。中国的经济利益与当前全球经济体系紧密结合,这个体系完全开放且制度松散,中国已经利用其得到了很大发展。如今国家的实力最终决定于持续的经济增长,中国很清楚没有哪个大国能在没有加入全球资本体系的情况下完成现代化;如果一个国家想变成世界强国,它只能选择加入世界贸易组织(WTO)。实际上,西方秩序及其多边经济制度是通向世界强国的必经之路。
中国不仅想要成为全球资本体系的一部分,还希望得到来自体系内规则的保护。以WTO为例,其多边贸易原则和争端解决机制为中国提供了应对歧视和保护主义的工具,而歧视与保护主义常常是崛起中国家经常遇到的威胁。中国政策的变化显示中国领导人意识到了这些优势:中国日渐开放的经济格局为中国带来了大量的境外投资和贸易,同时亦愈加接受全球贸易规则。中国很可能变成WTO的拥护者,而西方对WTO的支持将逐渐降低。但更可能的是不论崛起方还是衰退方都会发现,这样一个能够解决或者至少淡化争端的准合法机制具有很大价值。
现有的国际经济制度也为新兴国家的崛起提供机会。IMF和世界银行中的话语权按照所占经济份额进行分配,新兴国家可以借此在制度内发出更多的声音。不可否认,这个调整的过程会很长,美国和欧洲仍主导着IMF。华盛顿拥有17%的投票权(该比例一度曾为30%)。由于表决时必须有超过85%赞成,美国这个比例已经拥有控制权;在IMF的24个成员国中,有10个为欧盟国家,这使后者占据绝对话语权。不过情况也正在发生变化,对资源和经济往来的渴望正促使西方国家接受中国成为这个经济管理组织中的核心成员。IMF现有股东将发展中国家的崛起视作帮助其度过目前危机的关键。2006年9月在新加坡举行的IMF会议,给予中国、墨西哥、韩国和土耳其更多话语权的改革得到了一致赞成。
中国一直坚持自己是发展中国家,并以这类国家或组织的代理人自居。但中国正日益转变为一个赞助者和国际利益相关方。虽然在这类组织中的领导地位与国家经济规模不成比例,比如美国在经济地位衰退的情况下仍保有在IMF里的投票权比例,但在这类组织中的良性发展,仍然可以为中国带来重要的机遇。
权力转移与和平演变
由此看来,中国的崛起不会导致中美就全球规则和领导权展开激烈的争夺。西方秩序的存在能够将即将到来的权力转移,变成美国乐见的更为平和的转变。但这只可能发生在美国不断巩固现有秩序的情况下。如今,华盛顿一心扑在反恐与中东战争中,重建西方秩序规则在某些人看来已不那么重要。小布什时代的很多官员对于美国曾缔造并领导过的基于规则的多边体系表露出敌意。这种敌意愚蠢而又危险。中国会变得强大:它已经崛起。而美国最强大的战略武器就是有能力决定以怎样的国际秩序接受这一事实。
美国必须进一步加强西方秩序体系的建设,巩固其交往、整合以及限制的特点。这套体系从制度上将资本主义民主国家绑得越紧,它本身就越开放、协商和规范,其作用面也就越广,新兴国家越会选择与其适应并融入其中。如果西方秩序提供的规则制度能够让所有国家得益———无论这个国家正在崛起还是已然衰弱、强大还是弱小、新兴还是成熟,那么这个秩序将毫无疑问成为主宰。
美国的当务之急是重新扮演好西方秩序下全球管理体系的最重要支持者的角色。这样做首先能够促进解决集体性问题,使所有国家情况变好。同时,当其他国家看到美国开始巩固现有制度,这会使得美国自身的力量变得更具合法性———这样美国本身的权威也得以巩固。西方秩序内的国家会更倾向于与美国合作而不是与之对抗,这反过来又巩固了西方秩序本身。
要革新西方体系规则制度,就必须更新那些支撑战后安全条约的旧协议。北大西洋公约组织和美国东亚联盟背后的战略意图在于,美国将向盟友们提供安全保护,并让他们参与决定是否使用武力。而作为回报,盟友们则需要在美国领导的西方体系内活动。西方国家之间的安全合作目前仍十分广泛,但是随着安全威胁不再像冷战时那么明显,关于这些联盟的目的和责任开始出现争议。因此,美国需要重申这些联盟的政治价值:这些联盟是广义的西方体系架构中的一部分,正是在这个体系架构中,国家之间能够开展贸易往来。
美国还要加强对那些多边机制的支持。在经济方面,应重视WTO架构下多边贸易协议的构建,尽快完成多哈回合贸易谈判,将更多的市场机会和贸易自由化延伸至发展中国家。WTO是个重要舞台,而由于双边和地区贸易协定的增加和扩大,最基本的非歧视性原则开始受到威胁。同时,越来越多对WTO是否真能实现贸易自由化———特别是农业部门———的怀疑开始出现。这些问题也许不大,但是自由国际秩序的基本特征正受到威胁。相同的怀疑也开始出现在其他许多多边协议中,甚至包括全球变暖和防止核扩散,这些都需要美国重新确立领导地位。
这里的策略不仅仅是为了保证西方秩序体系具有开放性和法治性,还为了保证这个体系本身不会分裂成为一系列双边或“迷你多边”集团,导致美国只能影响到几个关键国家。在上述的情景下,中国也会有机会建立起自己的双边和“小型多边”同盟,最后世界又会陷入中美竞争当中。涉及多边及全方位的安全和经济联系越多,全球体系也就越完整。
除了保持这个体系的开放性和生命力,美国还必须努力联合新兴的发展中国家,促使其加入重要的全球性机构。新兴国家的加入会给国际秩序带来新的活力。美国和欧洲不仅要接纳中国,还有巴西、印度和南非。高盛的报告将其称为“金砖四国”,认为到2050年这四国的经济实力会超过原来的G6(德国、法国、意大利、日本、英国和美国)的总和。对新兴国家的融入,各个国际机构面临不同的挑战。联合国安理会也许最为困难,但其改革获得的回报也最为丰厚。那些较为不正式的机构———比如G20等———可以作为体现发言权利代表权的替代渠道。
自由秩序的胜利
美国需要牢记的关键一点是中国也许会赶上美国,但不太可能会压过整个西方秩序。以经济发展为例。中国在2020年左右会取代美国成为全球最大的经济体(由于其庞大的人口数量,中国只需达到美国1/5的人均生产力水平就能做到这一点)。但是当西方体系被作为一个整体来考虑时,中国的经济优势看起来就不那么明显了。中国的经济实力远不如经合组织(OECD)联合后的实力。军事实力也是这样:短期内中国没有任何希望赶上整个OECD的军费开支。资本主义民主世界是现有国际秩序的有力保护者,或者更准确地说,拓展者。如果中国企图挑战现有秩序,显然比仅仅面对美国要困难得多。
“单极时代”终究会过去,美国的主导地位也走到了尽头。因此,美国应思考的大战略方向应该是:当美国地位开始式微,美国期望看到怎样的国际秩序?
这可以被称作是当代的新罗斯福问题。政治哲学家约翰·罗尔斯认为政治制度的构造应该在“无知之幕”下进行,就是说构造者在构建制度时假装不知道他们在社会经济体系中处于什么样的地位。这样构造的体系才会保护每个人的利益,而与其贫富或强弱无关。美国在领导现有的国际秩序时就需要采取这种方式,必须设计合适的制度和规则以保证自身利益,无论其身处怎样的地位,无论其在何时会失去领导地位,10年,50年,或是100年。
幸运的是,这样的秩序体系如今已经颇具规模。现在的任务是努力拓展体系,使得中国除了成为其正式成员之外别无选择。美国无法阻止中国的崛起,但它可以努力确保将中国的力量限制在美国及其合作伙伴在过去一个世纪里建立起来的制度框架内。就算未来的世界将越来越拥挤,这个制度框架也能够保证所有国家的利益。美国的全球地位也许会衰弱,但是其领导的国际体系仍会是21世纪的主导秩序体系。
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中国崛起与西方世界的未来(The Rise of China and the Future of the West )
12/2008| G.约翰·伊肯贝瑞/ 云南师范大学马克思主义研究中心译中| 《国外理论动态》2008年第12期
美刊《外交事务》2008年12月号刊登了普林斯顿大学政治学和国际关系学教授约翰·伊肯贝瑞题为《中国的崛起与西方的未来——自由制度能否延续?》的文章。该文认为,中国的崛起必然会导致美国单极时代的结束。但是,这并不意味着中美的暴力斗争,也不意味着西方体系的覆灭。作者从美国的利益出发指出,只要华盛顿现在着手强化西方自由体系,那么,领导国际秩序的魁首——美国,在中国整合得更加强大时,也能保持其在国际秩序中的支配地位。文章内容如下。
中国的崛起无疑是20世纪的重大事件之一。然而,这出戏到底将如何上演,则前景未卜。中国要推翻现存国际秩序,还是要成为现存国际秩序的一部分?不论前景如何,当中国崛起时,美国在保持其国际地位方面还能有所作为吗? 有些观察家认为,由于西方主导的世界秩序被日益由东方主导的世界秩序所取代,所以美国时代正在终结。现实主义者一直认为,由于中国变得更加强大,而美国地位衰退,如下两件事情都可能发生:中国会努力利用其不断增强的影响来改造国际体系的规则和制度,以更好地为中国的利益服务,而体系中的其他国家,尤其是正在衰退的世界霸权国家,将把中国视为正在增长的安全威胁。现实主义者预言,这些发展的结果将是紧张、不信任和冲突,这是霸权更替的典型特征。按照这种看法,中国崛起这一事件的特征将表现为日益强大的中国和正在衰败的美国陷入关于国际体系规则和领导权的大规模战争中。并且由于世界最强大的国家并不是来自“二战”后建立的国际秩序,而是在它之外产生的,因此,这一事件的最终结果将是中国取得巨大优势以及以亚洲为中心的世界秩序开始形成。 然而,这一过程并非不可避免。中国的崛起不一定会引起扭转性的霸权更替。因为中国面对的国际秩序与过去崛起的国家面对的国际秩序根本不同,所以,美中力量的更替不同于过去的力量更替。中国不只面对美国,中国还面对着一个开放的、一体的、以规则为基础的西方中心体系,这一体系有着广泛而深刻的政治基础。同时,原子能革命使得大国之间不太可能发生战争——这消除了新兴力量用来瓦解衰退中的霸权国家所维护的国际体系的主要手段。简言之,今日的西方秩序推翻难,加入易。 这一异常持久和具有扩张性的秩序本身是卓有远见的美国领导层的创造物。“二战”后,美国不仅仅把自己打造成领导世界的力量,而且引领了引发全球成员资格,使民主政治与市场社会紧密结合在一起的普遍机制的形成过程。美国建立的是有利于已有大国和新独立国家都参与其中、融入其中的秩序。(人们常常忘记,设计这种战后秩序,主要是要将战败的轴心国和联合起来的同盟国重新融入统一的国际体系中。)今天,中国能够全面进入这一国际体系,并在其中发展壮大。如果中国这样做,中国将会崛起,而西方体系——如果得到恰当的管理——也将存在下去。 面对发展中的中国,美国应该记住,美国在西方体系中的领导地位使它能够决定中国将在其中作出关键的战略选择的环境。如果美国想保持这种领导地位,华盛顿必须采取行动来强化支撑西方体系的规则和制度——使其易于参与,难于推翻。美国的大战略应该围绕“立足西方,走向东方”的铭言来建立。一定要把这一体系的根基尽可能扎深,更多地激励中国融入该体系,而不是反对该体系,并增加该国际体系在美国相关力量衰败后存活的机会。 美国“单极时代”的终结不可避免。如果20世纪的泾渭分明的斗争在中美之间发生,那么,中国将占优。如果21世纪界限明确的斗争发生在中国与复兴了的西方体系之间,那么,西方将获胜。 一、过渡期的担忧 中国在成为世界强国的道路上进展顺利。中国的经济规模从20世纪70年代后期启动市场改革以来已翻了两番,据估计,未来十年还要再翻一番。中国已成为世界主要的制造业中心之一,大概消费世界钢、铁、煤供应量的三分之一。中国积累了雄厚的外汇储备,到2006年底其外汇储备超过一万亿美元。中国的军费开支每年以18%以上的速度膨胀,中国的外交触角不仅影响亚洲,而且伸向了非洲、拉美以及中东。苏联只是在军事上成为美国的竞争对手,与此不同,中国作为美国军事和经济两方面的对手正在崛起——这预示着全球力量分布的深刻变化。 力量的更替是国际关系中反复出现的问题。保罗·肯尼迪和罗伯特·吉尔平一类的学者已描述过这一状况,世界政治的特征就是实力国家连续不断地兴起并建立国际体系。强大的国家能够创立并强制推行一种稳定的全球体系的规则和制度,并在其中实现它的利益和安全。但是,没有永远不变的事物:力量分布中的长期变化产生出新的挑战国家,它们就原有国际秩序的协定发起斗争。新兴国家要让它们新获得的力量转变为全球体系中更大的权力——根据它自己的利益来重构国际规则和体制。相反,正在衰退的国家害怕失去支配权,担心它们的弱势地位所带来的安全隐患。 这时,危机四伏。当一国在国际体系中占据支配地位时,该国和较弱的国家都没有改变现存国际秩序的动机。但是,当挑战国的力量发展起来并且现在的支配国的力量弱化时,战略竞争就接踵而至,冲突——或许引起战争的冲突——就可能出现。19世纪晚期的德国戏剧般地体现了力量更替产生的危机。许多观察家看到这种事态变化也出现在美中关系中。一位现实主义学派学者,约翰·米尔斯海默写道:“假如中国在未来数十年内继续其令人瞩目的经济增长,美国与中国可能陷于激烈的安全竞争中,其导致战争的可能性相当大。” 但不是所有的力量更替都引发战争,或者都推翻原有的国际秩序。20世纪上半叶,英国将霸权拱手让给美国,没有发生大的冲突,甚至没有造成双方关系的破裂。从20世纪40年代末到90年代初,日本经济从相当于美国GDP的5%发展到相当于美国GDP的60%,日本也没有向现存的国际秩序发起挑战。 显然,存在着不同的力量更替类型。一些国家看到它们经济和地缘政治的力量取得了令人瞩目的发展,还照样让自己适应现存的国际秩序。而另外一些国家发展起来后,就试图改变现存国际秩序。有些力量更替会导致旧国际秩序的瓦解和新国际关系的建立。还有一些力量更替仅仅引发地区体系和全球体系作出有限的调整。 多种因素决定着力量更替的方式。新兴国家政治体制的性质以及其对国际政治旧秩序不满的程度是关键所在:19世纪末,美国——一个与欧洲隔海相望的自由国家,比德国能更好地支持以英国为中心的国际秩序。但更具决定性的因素是国际体系本身的性质——因为国际体系的性质决定了新兴国家是选择挑战还是选择融入国际秩序。 二、开放的秩序 战后的西方体系是历史上独一无二的。由强国所主导的国际体系的基础是胁迫和顺从的混合体,但以美国为首的体系是独特的,因为它比帝国体系更加自由——并且很容易进入,是合理而又持久的。其规则和制度植根于不断发展的全球民主政治和资本主义的力量中,因而也被这种力量所强化。这一秩序是扩张性的,拥有广泛和不断扩大的参与者队伍和利益相关者。它能够在带来巨大的经济增长和实力的同时,又释放出约束力——所有这些让这一制度难于推翻而易于参与。 使国际体系具有一体性和扩张性是20世纪40年代西方体系的设计者的明确意图。在冷战把世界分裂成两大敌对阵营之前,弗兰克林·罗斯福试图创造一个由彼此合作的大国共同控制的世界一统的国际体系——各合作大国将重建受战争破坏的欧洲,整合战败国,建立安全合作与扩大经济增长的机制。事实上,是罗斯福不顾持反对意见的温斯顿·丘吉尔,主张中国应成为联合国安理会常任理事国。“二战”期间,澳大利亚驻美大使在与罗斯福第一次会晤后在日记中写道:“他(罗斯福)说他与温斯顿就中国问题进行了多次商谈,而且,他认为温斯顿对中国的了解落后了四十年,温斯顿时常把中国人讲成中国佬(Chinks and China men),罗斯福认为这是非常危险的。因为四十或五十年后中国很可能成为一个军事强国,罗斯福想和中国保持友好。”
在接下来的半个世纪里,美国用它建立的体系中的规则与制度取得了满意的效果。西德通过欧洲煤钢共同体(之后,建立了欧洲共同体)使自己融入民主的西欧邻邦中,又通过大西洋安全公约与美国建立了稳定的关系;日本通过联盟伙伴关系和发展经济联系与美国紧密联系在一起。1944年,布雷顿森林会议制定了推动世界经济开放和繁荣的货币体制和贸易规则——考虑到战争的破坏和大国之间的利益角逐,这是惊人的成就。美、欧、日之间的附加协定巩固了战后世界经济开放的、多边的特征。冷战开始后,欧洲的马歇尔计划和1951年美日之间的安保条约,进一步把战败的轴心国整合到西方体系中。 冷战的最后日子里,西方体系再次被证明是非常成功的。随着苏联的衰落,西方体系所提供的一整套规则和制度让苏联领导人感到放心和可以融入——这有效地鼓励了他们成为这一体系的一部分。该体系的共同领导权保证了苏联的融入。由于里根政府对莫斯科推行强硬政策,欧洲人则实行有限制的接触政策。对于每一项强硬路线的推行,“都有一个缓和的回调”——这使得米哈伊尔·戈尔巴乔夫能够实行有高风险的改革。在德国统一前夕,德国会融入欧洲与大西洋的体系中,而不会成为一个独立的强国这一事实,有助于使戈尔巴乔夫相信德国和西方的意图没有敌意。冷战后,西方体系又一次应对了来自先前共产主义世界的许多新浪潮国家的一体化。西方体系的三个特征对其成就和生命力是至关重要的。 首先,与过去的帝国体系不同,围绕各种非歧视的和市场开放的规则和原则建立起来的西方体系,创造出让新崛起的国家在西方体系框架内发展经济、实现政治目标的条件。历史上,各种国际体系存在广泛差异,其区分的根据是它所产生的物质利益是不成比例地集中到了占主导地位的国家手中,还是被广泛共享了。在西方体系中,经济参与壁垒低,潜在利益高。中国已认识到,在这种开放的市场体系中运行,可能获得巨大的经济回报。 其次,西方体系的领导权的特点表现为以联合为基础。过去的体系趋向于由一个国家来支配。现在的西方体系参与者包括美国阵营中各种力量的联合——这是个重大的差别。这些为首的国家,大多数发展了自由民主,虽然不能在所有问题上达成一致,但它们在经济、政治以及安全上不断相互妥协。力量更替通常被认为发生在两个国家之间——正在崛起的国家与正在衰退的霸权国家之间,一旦力量平衡发生变化,体系就会失灵。但在现时的体系中,民主资本主义国家在更大程度上的一体化——以及地缘政治力量的积聚——使得这种平衡的改变符合西方体系的利益。 再次,战后的西方体系其规则和制度非常严密,具有包容性,并得到广泛的认可。尽管它不完美,但它比先前的体系更加开放,也更加以规则为基础。国家主权和法治不仅仅是写在联合国宪章中的原则规范,而且是战后西方体系内在的操作逻辑的组成部分。可以相信,这些规范正在完善,从历史上看,美国本身对遵守国际法和国际制度的态度模棱两可——今天最为突出。但整个战后西方体系在多边规则和机制上是严密的——这些规则和机制有全球性的,也有区域的,涉及经济、政治以及安全。这些表现出战后时代的巨大突破。它们为全球体系范围内空前的合作和权利共享奠定了基础。 国际经济环境性质的变化——尤其是科技进步产生的新的相互依赖,强化了这些特征所创造的中国融入自由的国际体系的动机。最有远见的中国领导人认识到,全球化已经改变了游戏规则,因此,中国需要全世界范围内的强大和繁荣的伙伴。从美国的观点看,健康发展的中国经济对美国和世界至关重要。科技和全球经济变革创造出不同于过去的经济关系的内在逻辑——使目前体系的政治和制度逻辑更强大。 三、接纳崛起的国家 今天这些特征最大的好处是,提供了西方体系接纳崛起国家的巨大能力。进入这个体系的新成员,有获得地位、权力的途径以及在管理该体系时发挥作用的机会。美国、中国和其他大国拥有核武器这一现实也限制了新崛起国家推翻现存体系的能力。在核威胁时代,大国战争不再是历史变迁的机制。由战争推动的变革不再是历史的进程。 西方体系中强大的规则和制度框架已开始促进中国的一体化。首先,中国出于自我保护的目的支持某些规则和制度:保护中国的主权和经济利益,同时通过参与全球和地区性的组织,努力让别的国家对中国的和平意愿安心。但正如学者马可·兰泰恩所认为的那样:“中国不同于世界上其他国家,因而也不同于以前的全球力量之处在于,中国不仅在前所未有的发达国际体系环境中实现了迅猛发展,而且,更为重要的是,中国在发展的同时,积极利用这些制度来提高中国的国际地位。”简言之,中国在西方体系中,而不是在西方体系之外,日益发挥着更大的作用。 中国已经是联合国安理会常任理事国,这是罗斯福围绕多变的强国领导权,建立世界性组织的决定的产物。这让中国拥有与其他常任理事国一样的权力以及“强国专有”(greatpower exceptionalism)的优势。现存的国际贸易体系也有利于中国,而且这种好处正日益增长。中国的经济利益与目前的世界经济体系是很一致的——一种开放的、制度松散的、中国热衷于融入并在其中繁荣发展的体系。今天国力在根本上是以经济的可持续发展为基础的,中国已清楚地意识到,不参与到全球化的资本主义体系中,任何大国都不能实现现代化;如果要想成为世界性的强国,一国别无选择,而只有加入世界贸易组织。事实上,这条通向世界强国的道路是通过西方体系及多边经济制度而展开的。 中国不仅需要继续融入到全球资本主义体系中,它也想获得这一体系的规则和制度所提供的保护。例如,WTO的多边贸易原则和争端解决机制,为中国提供了防御新兴的经济力量常常面临的贸易歧视和保护主义威胁的工具。中国的政策变化让人感到中国领导人认识到了如下好处:北京一边通过扩大对经济自由化的承诺来增加自己想要的外国投资和贸易,一边日益适应世界贸易规则。有可能出现如下情况,即因为中国支持WTO,更为成熟的西方经济体对WTO的支持度将衰减。但更大的可能是,新崛起的国家和衰退的国家都将能够使冲突得到解决或者至少使其淡化准法律机制的价值。 现存的国际经济制度还提供了让新的力量通过它们的平台崛起的各种机会。在国际货币基金组织和世界银行中,管理是以经济份额为基础的,发展中国家可以把这种经济份额转变成国际体系中更大的发言权。可以肯定,调整的步伐已经放缓。美国和欧洲还控制着国际货币基金组织。但是压力也在不断增加,特别是对资源的需求和维持关系的需要,这有可能会说服西方国家接纳中国进入这些经济管理制度的核心集团。例如,国际货币基金组织的现有股东意识到崛起的发展中国家对于更新制度并渡过其目前的使命危机是必不可少的。 随着中国摆脱其作为发展中国家(因此是这些制度的委托人)的地位,它将日益能够作为赞助人而不是作为受益人来行动。在这些组织中,领导力不仅仅是经济规模的反映(即使美国的经济比重下降,它仍然保持其在国际货币基金组织中的选举权份额);而且,它们内部的不断发展将给中国创造出重要的机会。 四、力量更替与和平变革 按这种看法,中国的崛起不需要引起同美国就全球规则和领导权的激烈斗争。西方体系有能力将即将发生的力量更替转变为对美国有利的和平变革。但是,这种情况只有在美国着手强化现存体系的条件下才会发生。今天,由于华盛顿集中精力对付恐怖主义和中东战争,重建西方规则和制度的重要性似乎在某种程度上并不突出。布什政府的许多官员直接敌视美国制定和领导的、基于规则的多边制度。这种敌对情绪是愚蠢和危险的。中国将变得强大:它正在崛起,美国最有力的战略武器是,它有能力决定哪种国际体系将会恰当地应对中国的崛起。
美国必须重新投入西方体系中,强化西方体系鼓励参与、整合以及遏制的特征。西方体系越是在根深蒂固的制度中把资本主义民主国家联系在一起,它就越开放、越融合、越以规则为基础;并且西方体系的好处越广泛传播,新崛起的国家就越可能通过整合和融入,而该体系不需要通过战争来保护资本主义民主国家的利益。假如西方体系提供的规则和制度对各种发展层次的国家——崛起的和衰退的,弱小的和强大的,刚兴起的和发展成熟的——都有益,那么,作为国际体系其支配地位毋庸置疑。 美国首先要做的是将自己重塑为支撑西方秩序的全球统治体系的最大支持者。这样做,首先会有利于使所有国家经济转好的各种共同问题的解决。同时,当其他国家看到美国运用其力量来加强现存的规则和制度时,这种力量将获得更大的合法性——这就会加强美国的权威。西方国家会更倾向于与美国力量合作,而不是对抗,这会加强西方本身的中心地位和统治地位。 西方规则和制度的革新,首先要求修订支撑战后重要安全公约的旧协定。北大西洋公约组织以及华盛顿与东亚的联盟背后的战略互信就是,美国将会在提供安全、带领盟国就使用武装力量作出决定方面与其盟国合作,反之,美国的盟国将在美国为首的西方体系内运转。虽然西方的安全合作今天仍在扩大,但是由于其主要安全威胁明显小于冷战时期,这些联盟的目标和职责仍然处在争论中。因此,美国需要重申这些联盟的政治价值——承认这些联盟是允许国家之间进行经济交往的、更加广泛的西方制度构架的组成部分。 美国还应更新其对广泛的多边体制的支持。就经济领域而论,这种变更应该涉及WTO的协定和体制结构的建设,包括努力达成目前的多哈回合贸易谈判,这一贸易谈判寻求向发展中国家扩大市场机会和贸易自由化。WTO正处在一个关键阶段。由于双边和区域贸易协定剧增,非歧视的基本标准处在危险中。与此同时,对WTO事实上是否能够实现贸易自由化,特别在农业中,是否有利于发展中国家,出现了日益增多的疑虑。虽然这些问题似乎范围狭窄,但自由的国际秩序的基本特征——其对使收益广泛传播的普遍开放规则的承诺——正处在危险中。类似的疑惑缠绕着许多多边协定——关于全球变暖、核不扩散以及其他的多边协定——因此它们还要求革新美国的领导能力。 这一战略不仅要确保西方体系是开放的和以规则为基础的,也要确保西方体系不被一批批双边和小双边(“minilateral”)的协议肢解,从而导致美国发现自己只是与不同地区的几个关键国家维持着联系。在这种情况下,中国就会有机会建立它自己的一套双边和小双边协定。结果,世界会被分裂为美中相互竞争的不同区域。安全和经济关系越多边化,越全面,全球体系就越能保持和谐一致。 除了保持西方体系的开放性和持久性,美国必须加倍努力把崛起的发展中国家整合到重要的全球制度中。让新兴的国家进入国际体系的控制之中,国际体系将会获得新生。美国和欧洲在谈判桌前不仅要为中国,而且要为巴西、印度和南非这样的国家找到空间。戈德曼·莎科斯关于所谓BRICs(巴西、俄罗斯、印度和中国)的报告谈到,到2050年这些国家的经济加起来要超过最早的六国集团(德国、法国、意大利、日本、英国和美国)经济的总和。每一种国际制度面临着自己特有的挑战。联合国安理会也许是最难处理的问题,但是它的改革也会带来最大的转变。非正式组织——所谓20国集团以及各种其他政府间网络组织——能够为争取发言权和代表提供可选择的其他方法。 五、自由制度的胜利 美国领导人要记住的重要事情是,中国仅仅是战胜美国是很可能的,但是中国要想战胜西方体系,其可能性极小。例如,在经济比重方面,2020年前后,中国将超过美国成为全球体制中最大的国家(因为中国的人口,中国要成为世界最大的经济体,只需要美国生产力水平的五分之一)。但是,当把西方体系的经济容量当作一个整体来考虑时,看起来中国的经济发展意义甚微;在可预见的将来,中国经济的规模仍将大大小于经济合作与发展组织国家联合起来的规模。军事力量也与此相应:中国不能企求短期内接近经济合作与发展组织国家的军费总支出。资本主义的民主世界是现存国际体系得以保存、甚至扩大的强有力的支柱。如果中国想要崛起并挑战现存体制,那么,它将遇到比仅仅对抗美国要艰难得多的任务。 “单极时代”终将过去,美国的支配地位终将结束,因此,推动美国大战略的一个关键问题是:当美国不再那么强大时,美国会认为哪一种国际体系合理?这可以被称为当代的新罗尔斯问题。政治哲学家约翰·罗尔斯坚持认为,政治制度应该在“无知之幕”之后来构思——即政治建构者构思制度,仿佛他们完全不知道他们在社会经济制度中所处的位置。建构的结果应该是一种保障个人利益的制度,不论这个人是贫还是富、强还是弱。美国今天需要采取上述方法实现其在国际体系中的领导地位,必须恰当地作出各种制度安排,强化各种规则,这将保障美国的利益,而无论美国在层级结构中处于何种位置,也无论在10年、50年或者100年内力量以何种方式分布。 幸运的是,这一体系已经就绪。现在的任务是要使这一体系扩张和制度化,以使中国别无选择而只能成为这一体系中的一个全权代表。虽然美国不能阻止中国的崛起,但美国能有助于确保,中国的力量在美国和其伙伴上个世纪精心设置的规则和制度之内发挥作用,这些规则和制度能够保护将来更加拥挤的世界中各国的利益。美国的全球地位可能正在变弱,但美国领导的国际制度能够继续成为21世纪占主导地位的体系。■
(责任编辑 周守吾)
(责任编辑 周守吾)